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Instrumentation 6

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Microscopy is the study of objects or samples that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. There are several types of microscopy, each with its own advantages and limitations. Here are the main types of microscopy: 1. Optical microscopy: This is the most common type of microscopy, which uses visible light to illuminate a sample. Optical microscopy can be further divided into several subtypes, such as brightfield, darkfield, phase contrast, fluorescence, and confocal microscopy. Optical microscopy is a technique that uses visible light to observe the sample under a microscope. It consists of several components, including an objective lens, an eyepiece lens, and a light source. The working of optical microscopy involves the following steps. The sample to be viewed is prepared by fixing it onto a glass slide and adding a stain or dye to enhance its contrast. The light source, located beneath the sample, emits light that is directed through the condenser lens to focus the light o
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Instrumentation 5

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Centrifuge A centrifuge is a laboratory instrument that is used to separate different components of a mixture based on their density or sedimentation rate. The basic principle behind centrifugation is to apply centrifugal force to a sample, causing the denser components to move towards the bottom of a centrifuge tube. This separation process is used in a wide range of applications, including cell culture, molecular biology, biochemistry, and microbiology. The centrifuge is composed of several basic components, including a rotor, a motor, and a control system. The rotor is the spinning component of the centrifuge, and it can be either fixed-angle or swinging bucket type. The motor provides the power to spin the rotor, and the control system allows the user to adjust the speed and time of the centrifugation process. The centrifugation process starts with loading the sample into the centrifuge tube. The tube is then placed in the rotor, and the lid is secured in place. The rotor is
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Instrumentation 4

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Sonicator   A sonicator, also known as an ultrasonic homogenizer, is a laboratory instrument that uses high-frequency sound waves to break down, disperse, and mix samples. It is commonly used for applications such as cell disruption, homogenization, emulsification, dispersion, and extraction. The sonicator consists of a generator that produces high-frequency electrical signals, which are transmitted to a transducer. The transducer converts the electrical signals into high-frequency sound waves that are transmitted through a probe or horn. The probe is immersed in the sample to be processed, and the high-frequency sound waves create cavitation bubbles in the sample, which collapse and generate high shear forces that break down the sample. Sonicator Sonicators can be used for a wide range of applications, including. Cell disruption: Sonicators can be used to break open cells and release cellular contents, such as proteins, DNA, and RNA. Sonicators can be used to homogenize or mix s
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Golden rice

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  Golden rice is a genetically modified variety of rice that has been engineered to produce beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. This modification gives the rice a yellow or golden color, hence the name "golden rice." Golden rice aims to address vitamin A deficiency, a significant public health problem in many developing countries, particularly in Southeast Asia and Africa.   Vitamin A is essential for human health, particularly for the proper immune system functioning and vision. However, many people in developing countries, particularly those who rely on rice as a staple food, do not have access to sufficient sources of vitamin A in their diet. This can lead to a range of health problems, including blindness, weakened immune systems, and even death.   Golden rice was developed in the late 1990s by a team of researchers led by Dr. Ingo Potrykus of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and Dr. Peter Beyer of the University of Freiburg in Germany. They used
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STD 12th/Ch-Reproduction /Asexual reproduction & sexual reproduction

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Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes (sperm and egg) from two individuals. Instead, a single individual can produce offspring that are genetically identical to itself. Asexual reproduction is commonly observed in organisms such as bacteria, fungi, plants, and some animals.   There are several different methods of asexual reproduction, including: Cell division in a unicellular organism. Binary fission: This is a common method of asexual reproduction in bacteria and other single-celled organisms. The cell simply divides in two, producing two genetically identical daughter cells. Budding: This method is used by some animals such as hydra and yeast. A small bulge or bud grows on the parent organism and eventually separates to form a new individual. Binary fission,  Budding Fragmentation: This method is used by some plants and animals. The parent organism breaks into several pieces, and each piece can regenerate into a new indivi
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STD 12th /Ch-9/ What is plant breeding?

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Plant breeding is the process of altering the genetic traits of plants through selective breeding techniques to create new and improved plant varieties that are more productive, resilient, and better suited for specific uses. It is a fundamental aspect of agriculture that has been practiced for thousands of years and has resulted in the development of crops that are better adapted to different environmental conditions, pests and diseases, and changing consumer preferences. The primary goal of plant breeding is to produce plants that have desirable traits, such as higher yields, better nutritional quality, resistance to pests and diseases, and improved tolerance to abiotic stress factors such as drought, heat, and cold. To achieve this, plant breeders use a variety of techniques to manipulate the genetic makeup of plants, including crossbreeding, hybridization, mutation breeding, genetic engineering, and genomic selection. Crossbreeding involves mating two different plants with desir
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