Posts

Showing posts with the label Genetics

Instrumentation 6

-
Microscopy is the study of objects or samples that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. There are several types of microscopy, each with its own advantages and limitations. Here are the main types of microscopy: 1. Optical microscopy: This is the most common type of microscopy, which uses visible light to illuminate a sample. Optical microscopy can be further divided into several subtypes, such as brightfield, darkfield, phase contrast, fluorescence, and confocal microscopy. Optical microscopy is a technique that uses visible light to observe the sample under a microscope. It consists of several components, including an objective lens, an eyepiece lens, and a light source. The working of optical microscopy involves the following steps. The sample to be viewed is prepared by fixing it onto a glass slide and adding a stain or dye to enhance its contrast. The light source, located beneath the sample, emits light that is directed through the condenser lens to focus the light o...
Post a Comment
Read more

Do you Know!!!!! Vector uses in a bioinformatics field.

-
Image
I n bioinformatics, vectors refer to genetic elements that are used to manipulate and transfer DNA sequences in molecular biology research. These vectors are typically circular DNA molecules that are capable of self-replication and can be easily manipulated in the laboratory to insert or delete DNA sequences. There are several types of vectors that are commonly used in bioinformatics research, including: Plasmids: Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules that are commonly found in bacteria. They are widely used as vectors in molecular biology research because they can be easily manipulated in the laboratory and can be readily introduced into bacterial cells. Let us understand in detailed. A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently within a bacterial cell. Plasmids are commonly found in bacteria and are often used as vectors in genetic engineering and biotechnology. The figure below...
Post a Comment
Read more

Explain CRISPR

-
Image
CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) is a genetic tool that enables researchers to make precise changes to the DNA of any organism. It is based on a bacterial defense mechanism against viruses, where the bacteria store a small piece of the virus's genetic material in their own genome as a memory of the virus. CRISPR works by using a guide RNA (gRNA) to target a specific sequence of DNA and a CRISPR-associated (Cas) protein to cut the DNA at the target site. This allows researchers to introduce new DNA sequences, remove unwanted ones, or make precise changes to the DNA code. CRISPR has the potential to revolutionize medicine, agriculture, and many other fields by allowing us to edit genes with unprecedented precision and ease. CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) is a revolutionary gene-editing tool that works by utilizing a bacterial defense mechanism against viruses. CRISPR enables researchers to make precise changes t...
Post a Comment
Read more

DNA sequencing

-
Image
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the precise order of nucleotides (A, C, G, and T) in a DNA molecule. It is a fundamental technique in modern molecular biology and genetics that enables researchers to understand the genetic information that encodes an organism's traits, functions, and evolutionary history. The DNA sequencing process involves several steps, which are generally divided into three main stages: library preparation, sequencing, and data analysis. Here's an overview of each stage:   Library preparation: This stage involves extracting DNA from a biological sample (e.g., blood, tissue, or saliva), fragmenting it into smaller pieces, and attaching small DNA adapters to each fragment. The adapters serve as anchors for the sequencing machinery and allow for the DNA fragments to be amplified and sequenced. Once the DNA fragments have been prepared, they are loaded onto a sequencing instrument.   Sequencing: This stage involves using a sequencing in...
Post a Comment
Read more

Introduction of DNA

-
Image
Genomic DNA: This is the most common type of DNA found in cells and is the DNA that makes up our genes. It's a double-stranded, helical molecule made up of four nucleotides: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Genomic DNA is organized into chromosomes and contains the instructions necessary to produce all of the proteins and molecules required for the cell to function properly. These instructions are encoded in the sequence of nucleotides along the DNA molecule, with each sequence of three nucleotides (a codon) corresponding to a specific amino acid. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Mitochondrial DNA is a circular, double-stranded molecule found in the mitochondria of cells. Unlike genomic DNA, mtDNA is inherited only from the mother and is used to generate energy for the cell. It codes for a small number of proteins that are essential for oxidative phosphorylation, the process that generates energy in the mitochondria. Because mtDNA is subject to high levels of oxidative stress, i...
Post a Comment
Read more

Mendel's first law of inheritance/ Law of Segregation , Incomplete Dominance

-
Image
Mendel's first law of inheritance: The concept of manuals (also known as "vandalization") and the law of segregation are both related to the inheritance of traits in organisms. The law of segregation, also known as Mendel's first law of inheritance, states that during the formation of gametes (sex cells), the alleles (alternative forms of a gene) for a particular trait segregate (separate) from each other so that each gamete receives only one allele. Now, let's understand the concept of manuals. In genetics, a manual refers to a group of genes that are physically close to each other on a chromosome and tend to be inherited together as a unit. This is because during meiosis, the process of cell division that produces gametes, these genes are physically linked and tend to remain together. Therefore, the inheritance of one gene in a Mandal is often associated with the inheritance of other genes in that manual. The concept of manuals is related to the law of segre...
Post a Comment
Read more

CRISPR-Cas9

-
Image
  CRISPR-Cas9 is a revolutionary gene editing technology that allows for precise and efficient modifications to the DNA of living organisms. It is based on a naturally occurring defense mechanism used by bacteria to protect themselves against invading viruses.   The CRISPR-Cas9 system consists of two main components: the CRISPR RNA (crRNA) and the Cas9 enzyme. The crRNA is a small RNA molecule that is complementary to a specific target sequence in the DNA. The Cas9 enzyme is a protein that can cut DNA at specific locations guided by the crRNA.   To use the CRISPR-Cas9 system for gene editing, researchers design a specific crRNA that matches the target sequence they want to modify. They also design a second RNA molecule, called the trans-activating crRNA (tracrRNA), which binds to the crRNA and guides it to the Cas9 enzyme.   Once the Cas9 enzyme is bound to the crRNA/tracrRNA complex, it can scan the DNA for a match to the target sequence. It cuts the DN...
Post a Comment
Read more

Gregor Mendel

-
Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who is widely regarded as the founder of modern genetics. Mendel conducted a series of experiments on pea plants between 1856 and 1863 to study the inheritance of traits from one generation to the next. These experiments involved crossing different varieties of pea plants and analyzing the patterns of inheritance that emerged. Mendel's most famous experiment involved crossing pea plants with different traits for flower color (purple or white) and observing the inheritance of these traits in the offspring. He performed a series of crosses between plants with different flower colors and found that the inheritance of the trait followed a predictable pattern, which he later referred to as the laws of inheritance. Mendel's experiments involved the following steps: He chose pea plants with clearly defined traits (such as flower color) that could be easily distinguished from one another. He crossed plants with different traits and observed the charac...
Post a Comment
Read more

STD 12th/ Ch-5/ What is point Mutation? Give one example.

-
Image
  A point mutation is a type of genetic mutation that involves a change in a single nucleotide, or building block, of DNA. Point mutations can occur spontaneously during DNA replication, or they can be induced by mutagens, such as chemicals or radiation. Point mutations can have various effects on the resulting protein, ranging from no effect at all to a complete loss of protein function.   Substitution mutations are the most common type of point mutation and involve the replacement of one nucleotide with another.  Substitutions can occur in various ways, including:   Silent mutations: These occur when the substitution does not result in a change in the amino acid sequence of the protein. This is because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, where multiple codons can specify the same amino acid.   Missense mutations: These occur when the substitution results in a change in the amino acid sequence of the protein. Depending on the position of the substitution a...
Post a Comment
Read more

STD 12th/ Ch-5/ Dominance vs Recessive / Homozygous vs Heterozygous / Monohybrid vs Dihybrid.

-
Image
Dominance  vs    Recessive Dominance and recessiveness are two important concepts in genetics that describe the relationship between alleles of a gene and the resulting expression of a particular trait. The main differences between dominance and recessiveness are:   Expression: Dominant alleles are always expressed when present, whereas recessive alleles are only expressed when an individual has two copies of the recessive allele.   Effect on phenotype: Dominant alleles have a visible effect on the phenotype, or observable characteristics of an organism, while recessive alleles are not expressed in the phenotype when they are paired with a dominant allele.   Inheritance: Dominant alleles are inherited in a straightforward manner, while recessive alleles may be hidden or masked in one generation and expressed in the next generation if both parents pass on the recessive allele.   Presence in the population: Dominant alleles are typically more commo...
Post a Comment
Read more

Popular posts from this blog

PETase enzyme.

-
Image
  P lastic-eating bacteria are a type of microorganisms that have the ability to break down and consume plastic materials. These bacteria have the enzymes necessary to degrade plastic polymers, which are long chains of molecules that make up most plastic products. One type of plastic-eating bacteria is  Ideonella sakaiensis , which was discovered in 2016 in a plastic waste dump in Japan. This bacterium produces an enzyme called PETase, which can break down polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a common type of plastic used in water bottles and other products. Other types of plastic-eating bacteria have also been discovered, including species that can degrade polystyrene and polyurethane. While the discovery of these bacteria is promising for reducing plastic pollution, there is still much research to be done to understand how they can be used effectively and safely. It's worth noting that plastic pollution is a complex problem that requires multiple approaches to address, includin...
Read more

STD 12th/ Ch-2/ Flowering plants.

-
Image
1. Name the parts of an angiosperm flower in which development of male and female gametophyte place. In an angiosperm flower, the male and female gametophytes develop in different parts of the flower. Male gametophyte ( pollen grains ) develops in the anther , located at the tip of the stamen, the flower's male reproductive organ. Female gametophyte ( embryo sac ) develops in the ovule , which is located in the ovary, the female reproductive organ of the flower. 2. Differentiate between microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis. Which type of cell division occurs during these events? Name the structures formed at the end of these two events? Fig: Microsporogenesis in detail Microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis are two different processes involved in the development of male and female gametophytes in plants.  Here are the differences between the two: Definition: Microsporogenesis refers to the process of formation of microspores or pollen grains in the anthers of a flower, wh...
Read more

Golden rice

-
Image
  Golden rice is a genetically modified variety of rice that has been engineered to produce beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. This modification gives the rice a yellow or golden color, hence the name "golden rice." Golden rice aims to address vitamin A deficiency, a significant public health problem in many developing countries, particularly in Southeast Asia and Africa.   Vitamin A is essential for human health, particularly for the proper immune system functioning and vision. However, many people in developing countries, particularly those who rely on rice as a staple food, do not have access to sufficient sources of vitamin A in their diet. This can lead to a range of health problems, including blindness, weakened immune systems, and even death.   Golden rice was developed in the late 1990s by a team of researchers led by Dr. Ingo Potrykus of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and Dr. Peter Beyer of the University of Freiburg in Germany. ...
Read more