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Instrumentation 6

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Microscopy is the study of objects or samples that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. There are several types of microscopy, each with its own advantages and limitations. Here are the main types of microscopy: 1. Optical microscopy: This is the most common type of microscopy, which uses visible light to illuminate a sample. Optical microscopy can be further divided into several subtypes, such as brightfield, darkfield, phase contrast, fluorescence, and confocal microscopy. Optical microscopy is a technique that uses visible light to observe the sample under a microscope. It consists of several components, including an objective lens, an eyepiece lens, and a light source. The working of optical microscopy involves the following steps. The sample to be viewed is prepared by fixing it onto a glass slide and adding a stain or dye to enhance its contrast. The light source, located beneath the sample, emits light that is directed through the condenser lens to focus the light o...
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Antibody Definition and types.

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Antibodies , also known as immunoglobulins (Ig) , are Y-shaped proteins that are produced by specialized immune cells called B cells in response to the presence of foreign substances, known as antigens. Antibodies play a critical role in the immune response by recognizing and binding to specific antigens, which may include bacteria, viruses, toxins, and other harmful substances. Once an antibody binds to an antigen, it can trigger a variety of immune responses, including neutralization of the antigen, recruitment of other immune cells to destroy the antigen, and activation of the complement system. Antibodies are an essential component of the adaptive immune system, which is responsible for providing long-lasting protection against a wide range of pathogens. Types of antibody IgG: Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is the most abundant antibody in the blood and tissues, accounting for approximately 75-80% of all antibodies in the body. It is composed of two heavy chains and two light chains that ...
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What Is Immunity?

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Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist or defend itself against harmful microorganisms, viruses, toxins, and other foreign substances . It is a complex biological system that involves many organs, tissues, cells, and molecules, working together to recognize, destroy, and remember specific pathogens. Immunity can be divided into two major types:  Innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity is the first line of defense that provides immediate, non-specific protection against a wide range of pathogens. It involves physical barriers, such as the skin and mucous membranes, as well as specialized cells and molecules, such as white blood cells, antimicrobial proteins, and complement proteins. Overall, immunity is essential for the health and survival of organisms, as it helps to prevent and control infections and diseases. Adaptive immunity , on the other hand, is a more specific and complex defense mechanism that develops over time in response to specific pathog...
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Structure of Antibody Explain in brief.

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Antibodies , also known as immunoglobulins (Ig), are Y-shaped proteins that are produced by B cells in response to the presence of a foreign substance, known as an antigen . Each antibody molecule is composed of four polypeptide chains, two identical heavy chains, and two identical light chains, which are linked together by disulfide bonds. The basic structure of an antibody molecule consists of two identical antigen-binding fragments (Fab) and a single crystallizable fragment (Fc). The Fab region is located at the tips of the Y-shaped molecule and is responsible for binding to specific antigens. The Fc region is located at the base of the Y and is responsible for the effector functions of the antibody, such as activating complement and binding to Fc receptors on immune cells. Each Fab region contains a variable region and a constant region. The variable region is responsible for binding to the antigen and is highly variable between different antibodies, while the constant region ...
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Impact studies on the growth of a Chlorella Sp. culture using NaNO3/KNO3 as nitrogen sources.

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  The green algae Chlorella sp pure cultures were developed and optimized in modified BG11 media for 24 days under laboratory conditions such as constant temperature (25±1˚C) and light (1000 µmol s -1 m -2 ) 12hr light and 12hr dark periods. After that, axenic seed cultures (2 ml) were inoculated in two triplicate sets of 250 ml flasks containing 100 ml of modified media ( Table 1&2 ) . Then the experimental flasks were kept in laboratory conditions. During the cultivation culture, cell density (growth), biomass, and nutrient consumption were determined over the cultivation time. Media formulation BG11 is a well-known media for green microalgae cultivation. In this study, BG11 media composition was modified to grow Chlorella sp. The preparation of culture media (Tables 1&2) and the salinity (up to 10ppt). The media was divided into two parts, and each part was supplemented with two nitrate sources in the form of sodium nitrate (NaNO 3 ) (20 mM) and potassium nitrate (...
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STD 12th/Ch-5/ Mention the advantage of selecting pea plant for the experiment by Mendel.

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Gregor Mendel selected pea plants for his experiments because they have several advantages that made them an ideal organism for genetic research. Some of the advantages are: Easy to grow and maintain:  Pea plants are easy to grow and can be cultivated in a small area. They have a short life cycle, and many generations can be produced in a short time. A large number of offspring: Pea plants produce a large number of offspring, which allows for statistical analysis and a more accurate determination of genetic ratios. Self-fertilizing: Pea plants can self-fertilize, which means that they can produce offspring by fertilizing their own flowers. This characteristic makes it easier to control and manipulate genetic traits. Clear-cut traits: Pea plants have several easily identifiable traits that are controlled by single genes, such as seed color, flower color, and plant height. These traits are distinct and show clear-cut differences between the two parental varieties. No environmental...
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