Instrumentation 6

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Microscopy is the study of objects or samples that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. There are several types of microscopy, each with its own advantages and limitations. Here are the main types of microscopy: 1. Optical microscopy: This is the most common type of microscopy, which uses visible light to illuminate a sample. Optical microscopy can be further divided into several subtypes, such as brightfield, darkfield, phase contrast, fluorescence, and confocal microscopy. Optical microscopy is a technique that uses visible light to observe the sample under a microscope. It consists of several components, including an objective lens, an eyepiece lens, and a light source. The working of optical microscopy involves the following steps. The sample to be viewed is prepared by fixing it onto a glass slide and adding a stain or dye to enhance its contrast. The light source, located beneath the sample, emits light that is directed through the condenser lens to focus the light o...
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Antibody Definition and types.

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Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins (Ig), are Y-shaped proteins that are produced by specialized immune cells called B cells in response to the presence of foreign substances, known as antigens. Antibodies play a critical role in the immune response by recognizing and binding to specific antigens, which may include bacteria, viruses, toxins, and other harmful substances. Once an antibody binds to an antigen, it can trigger a variety of immune responses, including neutralization of the antigen, recruitment of other immune cells to destroy the antigen, and activation of the complement system. Antibodies are an essential component of the adaptive immune system, which is responsible for providing long-lasting protection against a wide range of pathogens.

Types of antibody

IgG: Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is the most abundant antibody in the blood and tissues, accounting for approximately 75-80% of all antibodies in the body. It is composed of two heavy chains and two light chains that are linked together by disulfide bonds to form a Y-shaped molecule. IgG is the only antibody that can cross the placenta, providing passive immunity to newborns. 

IgG


IgG plays a key role in opsonization, which is the process of marking pathogens for destruction by phagocytes. It also neutralizes toxins and viruses and can activate the complement system to destroy pathogens.


IgA: Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is found primarily in mucosal secretions, such as saliva, tears, and breast milk, as well as in the blood. It is composed of two heavy chains and two light chains and is primarily found in a dimeric form (two Y-shaped molecules linked together by a J-chain). IgA provides the first line of defense against pathogens that enter the body through mucosal surfaces, and it helps to prevent infection by neutralizing pathogens and blocking their attachment to host cells.

 


It can also activate the complement system and recruit immune cells to destroy pathogens.


IgM: Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is the first antibody produced in response to an infection, and it plays a key role in activating the complement system. It is composed of five individual antibody molecules linked together by a J-chain to form a pentamer.


 

IgM is very effective at neutralizing pathogens and can also serve as a B cell receptor, allowing B cells to recognize and respond to antigens.


IgD: Immunoglobulin D (IgD) is found on the surface of B cells and is involved in the activation of these cells. It is composed of two heavy chains and two light chains, and its precise role in the immune response is not fully understood. 



It is believed to be involved in the selection of B cells during the development of the immune system.


IgE: Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is involved in the allergic response and provides defense against parasitic infections. It is found in very small amounts in the blood, but it binds tightly to receptors on mast cells and basophils, triggering the release of histamine and other chemicals that cause the symptoms of an allergic reaction. 



IgE is composed of two heavy chains and two light chains, and it is thought to have evolved to protect against parasitic infections, which are common in many parts of the world.

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