Instrumentation 6

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Microscopy is the study of objects or samples that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. There are several types of microscopy, each with its own advantages and limitations. Here are the main types of microscopy: 1. Optical microscopy: This is the most common type of microscopy, which uses visible light to illuminate a sample. Optical microscopy can be further divided into several subtypes, such as brightfield, darkfield, phase contrast, fluorescence, and confocal microscopy. Optical microscopy is a technique that uses visible light to observe the sample under a microscope. It consists of several components, including an objective lens, an eyepiece lens, and a light source. The working of optical microscopy involves the following steps. The sample to be viewed is prepared by fixing it onto a glass slide and adding a stain or dye to enhance its contrast. The light source, located beneath the sample, emits light that is directed through the condenser lens to focus the light o...
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DNA Sequencing Protocol

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Step-by-step protocol for DNA sequencing:

 DNA Extraction:

The first step in DNA sequencing is to extract the DNA from the sample you wish to sequence. There are many DNA extraction protocols available depending on the sample type.

Fragmentation:

Next, the extracted DNA is broken down into smaller fragments using various techniques such as sonication or enzymatic digestion.

 Library preparation: 

These DNA fragments are then ligated to specialized adapters that allow them to bind to the sequencing platform. This process is called library preparation.

 PCR amplification: 

Once the DNA fragments have been ligated to the adapters, PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is used to amplify the number of fragments. This step is critical to obtain enough DNA for sequencing.

Quality Control:  

The quality of the DNA library is assessed using different methods such as gel electrophoresis or bioanalyzer.

 Sequencing: 

The sequencing platform then reads the DNA sequences. Different platforms have different sequencing methods. For example, Illumina platforms use reversible terminators to sequence DNA, while PacBio sequencing uses real-time single molecule sequencing.

Data Analysis:  

After sequencing, the data is analyzed using specialized software to identify the sequence of each DNA fragment. This step can include quality control, error correction, and alignment to a reference genome.

Annotation:  

Finally, the DNA sequence is annotated, which involves identifying important features such as genes, regulatory elements, and mutations.

 

Overall, the process of DNA sequencing is complex and requires specialized equipment and expertise. However, advances in sequencing technologies have made it faster, more accurate, and more affordable than ever before. 

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