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Instrumentation 6

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Microscopy is the study of objects or samples that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. There are several types of microscopy, each with its own advantages and limitations. Here are the main types of microscopy: 1. Optical microscopy: This is the most common type of microscopy, which uses visible light to illuminate a sample. Optical microscopy can be further divided into several subtypes, such as brightfield, darkfield, phase contrast, fluorescence, and confocal microscopy. Optical microscopy is a technique that uses visible light to observe the sample under a microscope. It consists of several components, including an objective lens, an eyepiece lens, and a light source. The working of optical microscopy involves the following steps. The sample to be viewed is prepared by fixing it onto a glass slide and adding a stain or dye to enhance its contrast. The light source, located beneath the sample, emits light that is directed through the condenser lens to focus the light o...
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What is Enzymes? Enzyme nomenclature And Classification.

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Enzymes are biological molecules that catalyze, or speed up, chemical reactions in living organisms. They are highly specific, meaning each enzyme typically catalyzes one particular chemical reaction. Enzymes are essential for life as they enable biochemical reactions to occur at rates that are necessary for the maintenance of life processes. Enzymes are proteins that are made up of long chains of amino acids. These amino acids are arranged in a specific sequence, giving the enzyme its unique shape. The shape of an enzyme allows it to interact specifically with the molecule, called the substrate, that it is designed to catalyze. When an enzyme binds to its substrate, it forms an enzyme-substrate complex. The enzyme then catalyzes the chemical reaction, converting the substrate into a product. Enzymes are highly efficient catalysts, often able to catalyze reactions at rates millions of times faster than the same reaction would occur in the absence of an enzyme. Enzymes are essenti...
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Prokaryotic Cell Vs Eukaryotic Cells

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Here's a chart comparing the main differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:   Feature Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell Nucleus No true nucleus True nucleus, enclosed by a nuclear membrane DNA Single, circular chromosome Multiple linear chromosomes Organelles Few, no membrane-bound organelles Many, membrane-bound organelles Size Smaller, typically 1-10 micrometers Larger, typically 10-100 micrometers Reproduction Asexual only Sexual and asexual Ribosomes Smaller Larger Cell wall Present in many, composed of peptidoglycan Present in some, composed of cellulose or chitin Movement Flagella made of flagellin Flagella or cilia made of microtubules Examples Bact...
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What is a cell?

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What is a cell? A cell is the basic unit of life and is considered the smallest living unit in all organisms. Cells are microscopic structures that are enclosed by a membrane and contain a variety of specialized molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Cells come in many different shapes and sizes, and they perform a wide range of functions that are critical for the survival and reproduction of the organism. Some cells, such as those in the skin or lining of the digestive tract, are specialized for protection and absorption, while others, such as muscle cells and nerve cells, are specialized for movement and communication. All cells have several common features, including a plasma membrane that separates the cell from its environment, a cytoplasm that contains the cell's organelles and other structures, and a nucleus (in eukaryotic cells) that contains the cell's genetic material in the form of DNA. There are two main types of cells: pro...
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Antibody Definition and types.

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Antibodies , also known as immunoglobulins (Ig) , are Y-shaped proteins that are produced by specialized immune cells called B cells in response to the presence of foreign substances, known as antigens. Antibodies play a critical role in the immune response by recognizing and binding to specific antigens, which may include bacteria, viruses, toxins, and other harmful substances. Once an antibody binds to an antigen, it can trigger a variety of immune responses, including neutralization of the antigen, recruitment of other immune cells to destroy the antigen, and activation of the complement system. Antibodies are an essential component of the adaptive immune system, which is responsible for providing long-lasting protection against a wide range of pathogens. Types of antibody IgG: Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is the most abundant antibody in the blood and tissues, accounting for approximately 75-80% of all antibodies in the body. It is composed of two heavy chains and two light chains that ...
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Structure of Antibody Explain in brief.

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Antibodies , also known as immunoglobulins (Ig), are Y-shaped proteins that are produced by B cells in response to the presence of a foreign substance, known as an antigen . Each antibody molecule is composed of four polypeptide chains, two identical heavy chains, and two identical light chains, which are linked together by disulfide bonds. The basic structure of an antibody molecule consists of two identical antigen-binding fragments (Fab) and a single crystallizable fragment (Fc). The Fab region is located at the tips of the Y-shaped molecule and is responsible for binding to specific antigens. The Fc region is located at the base of the Y and is responsible for the effector functions of the antibody, such as activating complement and binding to Fc receptors on immune cells. Each Fab region contains a variable region and a constant region. The variable region is responsible for binding to the antigen and is highly variable between different antibodies, while the constant region ...
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What Is Immunity?

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Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist or defend itself against harmful microorganisms, viruses, toxins, and other foreign substances . It is a complex biological system that involves many organs, tissues, cells, and molecules, working together to recognize, destroy, and remember specific pathogens. Immunity can be divided into two major types:  Innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity is the first line of defense that provides immediate, non-specific protection against a wide range of pathogens. It involves physical barriers, such as the skin and mucous membranes, as well as specialized cells and molecules, such as white blood cells, antimicrobial proteins, and complement proteins. Overall, immunity is essential for the health and survival of organisms, as it helps to prevent and control infections and diseases. Adaptive immunity , on the other hand, is a more specific and complex defense mechanism that develops over time in response to specific pathog...
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Introduction of DNA

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Genomic DNA: This is the most common type of DNA found in cells and is the DNA that makes up our genes. It's a double-stranded, helical molecule made up of four nucleotides: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Genomic DNA is organized into chromosomes and contains the instructions necessary to produce all of the proteins and molecules required for the cell to function properly. These instructions are encoded in the sequence of nucleotides along the DNA molecule, with each sequence of three nucleotides (a codon) corresponding to a specific amino acid. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Mitochondrial DNA is a circular, double-stranded molecule found in the mitochondria of cells. Unlike genomic DNA, mtDNA is inherited only from the mother and is used to generate energy for the cell. It codes for a small number of proteins that are essential for oxidative phosphorylation, the process that generates energy in the mitochondria. Because mtDNA is subject to high levels of oxidative stress, i...
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PETase enzyme.

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  P lastic-eating bacteria are a type of microorganisms that have the ability to break down and consume plastic materials. These bacteria have the enzymes necessary to degrade plastic polymers, which are long chains of molecules that make up most plastic products. One type of plastic-eating bacteria is  Ideonella sakaiensis , which was discovered in 2016 in a plastic waste dump in Japan. This bacterium produces an enzyme called PETase, which can break down polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a common type of plastic used in water bottles and other products. Other types of plastic-eating bacteria have also been discovered, including species that can degrade polystyrene and polyurethane. While the discovery of these bacteria is promising for reducing plastic pollution, there is still much research to be done to understand how they can be used effectively and safely. It's worth noting that plastic pollution is a complex problem that requires multiple approaches to address, includin...
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STD 12th/ Ch-2/ Flowering plants.

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1. Name the parts of an angiosperm flower in which development of male and female gametophyte place. In an angiosperm flower, the male and female gametophytes develop in different parts of the flower. Male gametophyte ( pollen grains ) develops in the anther , located at the tip of the stamen, the flower's male reproductive organ. Female gametophyte ( embryo sac ) develops in the ovule , which is located in the ovary, the female reproductive organ of the flower. 2. Differentiate between microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis. Which type of cell division occurs during these events? Name the structures formed at the end of these two events? Fig: Microsporogenesis in detail Microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis are two different processes involved in the development of male and female gametophytes in plants.  Here are the differences between the two: Definition: Microsporogenesis refers to the process of formation of microspores or pollen grains in the anthers of a flower, wh...
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Golden rice

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  Golden rice is a genetically modified variety of rice that has been engineered to produce beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. This modification gives the rice a yellow or golden color, hence the name "golden rice." Golden rice aims to address vitamin A deficiency, a significant public health problem in many developing countries, particularly in Southeast Asia and Africa.   Vitamin A is essential for human health, particularly for the proper immune system functioning and vision. However, many people in developing countries, particularly those who rely on rice as a staple food, do not have access to sufficient sources of vitamin A in their diet. This can lead to a range of health problems, including blindness, weakened immune systems, and even death.   Golden rice was developed in the late 1990s by a team of researchers led by Dr. Ingo Potrykus of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and Dr. Peter Beyer of the University of Freiburg in Germany. ...
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