Posts

Showing posts from February, 2023

Instrumentation 6

-
Microscopy is the study of objects or samples that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. There are several types of microscopy, each with its own advantages and limitations. Here are the main types of microscopy: 1. Optical microscopy: This is the most common type of microscopy, which uses visible light to illuminate a sample. Optical microscopy can be further divided into several subtypes, such as brightfield, darkfield, phase contrast, fluorescence, and confocal microscopy. Optical microscopy is a technique that uses visible light to observe the sample under a microscope. It consists of several components, including an objective lens, an eyepiece lens, and a light source. The working of optical microscopy involves the following steps. The sample to be viewed is prepared by fixing it onto a glass slide and adding a stain or dye to enhance its contrast. The light source, located beneath the sample, emits light that is directed through the condenser lens to focus the light o
Post a Comment
Read more

Golden rice

-
Image
  Golden rice is a genetically modified variety of rice that has been engineered to produce beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. This modification gives the rice a yellow or golden color, hence the name "golden rice." Golden rice aims to address vitamin A deficiency, a significant public health problem in many developing countries, particularly in Southeast Asia and Africa.   Vitamin A is essential for human health, particularly for the proper immune system functioning and vision. However, many people in developing countries, particularly those who rely on rice as a staple food, do not have access to sufficient sources of vitamin A in their diet. This can lead to a range of health problems, including blindness, weakened immune systems, and even death.   Golden rice was developed in the late 1990s by a team of researchers led by Dr. Ingo Potrykus of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and Dr. Peter Beyer of the University of Freiburg in Germany. They used
Post a Comment
Read more

CRISPR-Cas9

-
Image
  CRISPR-Cas9 is a revolutionary gene editing technology that allows for precise and efficient modifications to the DNA of living organisms. It is based on a naturally occurring defense mechanism used by bacteria to protect themselves against invading viruses.   The CRISPR-Cas9 system consists of two main components: the CRISPR RNA (crRNA) and the Cas9 enzyme. The crRNA is a small RNA molecule that is complementary to a specific target sequence in the DNA. The Cas9 enzyme is a protein that can cut DNA at specific locations guided by the crRNA.   To use the CRISPR-Cas9 system for gene editing, researchers design a specific crRNA that matches the target sequence they want to modify. They also design a second RNA molecule, called the trans-activating crRNA (tracrRNA), which binds to the crRNA and guides it to the Cas9 enzyme.   Once the Cas9 enzyme is bound to the crRNA/tracrRNA complex, it can scan the DNA for a match to the target sequence. It cuts the DNA at that location
Post a Comment
Read more

Gregor Mendel

-
Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who is widely regarded as the founder of modern genetics. Mendel conducted a series of experiments on pea plants between 1856 and 1863 to study the inheritance of traits from one generation to the next. These experiments involved crossing different varieties of pea plants and analyzing the patterns of inheritance that emerged. Mendel's most famous experiment involved crossing pea plants with different traits for flower color (purple or white) and observing the inheritance of these traits in the offspring. He performed a series of crosses between plants with different flower colors and found that the inheritance of the trait followed a predictable pattern, which he later referred to as the laws of inheritance. Mendel's experiments involved the following steps: He chose pea plants with clearly defined traits (such as flower color) that could be easily distinguished from one another. He crossed plants with different traits and observed the charac
Post a Comment
Read more

The tau protein, and about The Alzheimer's disease.

-
Image
The tau protein, also known as microtubule-associated protein tau (MAPT) , is a type of protein found in the human brain. Tau plays an important role in stabilizing microtubules, which are structures that help maintain the shape and stability of cells. In healthy individuals, tau protein is mainly found in neurons, where it helps support the structure of these cells and facilitate communication between them. However, in certain neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, tau protein can become abnormally modified and accumulate in the brain, leading to the formation of tau tangles and neuronal dysfunction. There are six isoforms of tau protein, which arise from alternative splicing of the MAPT gene. These isoforms differ in the number of repeats of a specific sequence motif in the tau protein, which can affect their affinity for microtubules and their ability to form tau tangles.   Six isoforms of tau protein The six isoforms of the tau protein are formed due to alternative
Post a Comment
Read more

STD 12th /Ch-9/ What is plant breeding?

-
Image
Plant breeding is the process of altering the genetic traits of plants through selective breeding techniques to create new and improved plant varieties that are more productive, resilient, and better suited for specific uses. It is a fundamental aspect of agriculture that has been practiced for thousands of years and has resulted in the development of crops that are better adapted to different environmental conditions, pests and diseases, and changing consumer preferences. The primary goal of plant breeding is to produce plants that have desirable traits, such as higher yields, better nutritional quality, resistance to pests and diseases, and improved tolerance to abiotic stress factors such as drought, heat, and cold. To achieve this, plant breeders use a variety of techniques to manipulate the genetic makeup of plants, including crossbreeding, hybridization, mutation breeding, genetic engineering, and genomic selection. Crossbreeding involves mating two different plants with desir
Post a Comment
Read more

STD 12th/ Ch-2/ Flowering plants.

-
Image
1. Name the parts of an angiosperm flower in which development of male and female gametophyte place. In an angiosperm flower, the male and female gametophytes develop in different parts of the flower. Male gametophyte ( pollen grains ) develops in the anther , located at the tip of the stamen, the flower's male reproductive organ. Female gametophyte ( embryo sac ) develops in the ovule , which is located in the ovary, the female reproductive organ of the flower. 2. Differentiate between microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis. Which type of cell division occurs during these events? Name the structures formed at the end of these two events? Fig: Microsporogenesis in detail Microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis are two different processes involved in the development of male and female gametophytes in plants.  Here are the differences between the two: Definition: Microsporogenesis refers to the process of formation of microspores or pollen grains in the anthers of a flower, which a
Post a Comment
Read more

STD 12th / Ch-16, Radioactive Wastes, Defunct ships and e-wastes, Municipal solid wastes.

-
Image
Radioactive Wastes: Radioactive waste refers to any material that contains radioactive isotopes and has no current use or intended purpose. This type of waste is often produced by various industries such as nuclear power plants, research facilities, and hospitals. Radioactive waste can also be generated from natural sources such as uranium mining. There are two main types of radioactive waste: low-level waste and high-level waste. The low-level waste consists of materials that have lower levels of radioactivity, such as protective clothing, tools, and medical equipment. High-level waste, on the other hand, is more radioactive and can include spent nuclear fuel, which is a byproduct of nuclear power generation. The safe disposal of radioactive waste is crucial to protect public health and the environment. The most common method of disposal is through burial in specially designed repositories located deep underground. These repositories are designed to isolate waste from the environment
Post a Comment
Read more

STD 12th/ Ch-5/ What is point Mutation? Give one example.

-
Image
  A point mutation is a type of genetic mutation that involves a change in a single nucleotide, or building block, of DNA. Point mutations can occur spontaneously during DNA replication, or they can be induced by mutagens, such as chemicals or radiation. Point mutations can have various effects on the resulting protein, ranging from no effect at all to a complete loss of protein function.   Substitution mutations are the most common type of point mutation and involve the replacement of one nucleotide with another.  Substitutions can occur in various ways, including:   Silent mutations: These occur when the substitution does not result in a change in the amino acid sequence of the protein. This is because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, where multiple codons can specify the same amino acid.   Missense mutations: These occur when the substitution results in a change in the amino acid sequence of the protein. Depending on the position of the substitution and the properties of the
Post a Comment
Read more

STD 12th/ Ch-5/ Dominance vs Recessive / Homozygous vs Heterozygous / Monohybrid vs Dihybrid.

-
Image
Dominance  vs    Recessive Dominance and recessiveness are two important concepts in genetics that describe the relationship between alleles of a gene and the resulting expression of a particular trait. The main differences between dominance and recessiveness are:   Expression: Dominant alleles are always expressed when present, whereas recessive alleles are only expressed when an individual has two copies of the recessive allele.   Effect on phenotype: Dominant alleles have a visible effect on the phenotype, or observable characteristics of an organism, while recessive alleles are not expressed in the phenotype when they are paired with a dominant allele.   Inheritance: Dominant alleles are inherited in a straightforward manner, while recessive alleles may be hidden or masked in one generation and expressed in the next generation if both parents pass on the recessive allele.   Presence in the population: Dominant alleles are typically more common in a population, while recessive
Post a Comment
Read more

STD 12th/Ch-5/ Mention the advantage of selecting pea plant for the experiment by Mendel.

-
Image
Gregor Mendel selected pea plants for his experiments because they have several advantages that made them an ideal organism for genetic research. Some of the advantages are: Easy to grow and maintain:  Pea plants are easy to grow and can be cultivated in a small area. They have a short life cycle, and many generations can be produced in a short time. A large number of offspring: Pea plants produce a large number of offspring, which allows for statistical analysis and a more accurate determination of genetic ratios. Self-fertilizing: Pea plants can self-fertilize, which means that they can produce offspring by fertilizing their own flowers. This characteristic makes it easier to control and manipulate genetic traits. Clear-cut traits: Pea plants have several easily identifiable traits that are controlled by single genes, such as seed color, flower color, and plant height. These traits are distinct and show clear-cut differences between the two parental varieties. No environmental inf
Post a Comment
Read more

STD 12th / Ch-14/ Explain Zooplankton, Phytoplankton, Benthos.

-
Image
  Zooplankton: Zooplankton are small, drifting aquatic animals that live in the water column of oceans , lakes , and rivers . They are a diverse group of organisms that includes many different types of animals, such as tiny crustaceans, jellyfish, and larval forms of larger animals. Zooplankton are important components of aquatic ecosystems , serving as food for larger predators and playing critical roles in nutrient cycling and the carbon cycle . They also have significant impacts on the marine food web, as changes in zooplankton populations can affect the abundance and distribution of higher trophic levels, including fish and marine mammals. Zooplankton can be classified based on their size , with the smallest forms referred to as microzooplankton and the larger forms as microzooplankton . They can also be classified based on their feeding behavior , with some species feeding on phytoplankton and others consuming other zooplankton. Overall, zooplankton are a vital component
Post a Comment
Read more

STD 12th/ Biotechnology and it's related terms Definitions: Origin of replication, Bioreactors, Downstream processing, PCR, Explain in brief Restriction Enzyme and DNA, Explain Chitinase.

-
Image
What is biotechnology? Biotechnology is a field of science that applies biological systems, organisms, or living cells to develop or modify products, processes, or technologies for specific applications. It involves the use of living organisms or their components to create useful products or processes for various industries, including medicine, agriculture, and industry. Biotechnology is a broad and interdisciplinary field that includes genetic engineering, molecular biology, biochemistry, microbiology, and other related disciplines. Origin of replication: The origin of replication ( ORI ) is a specific DNA sequence in a genome where DNA replication is initiated. It serves as the starting point for the DNA replication process, which is essential for cell division and reproduction. The ORI contains specific nucleotide sequences that signal the replication machinery to bind to the DNA and begin the replication process. Once replication is initiated at the ORI, the replication machinery
Post a Comment
Read more

Popular posts from this blog

what is Biostatistics.

-
Image
B iostatistics is the application of statistical methods to analyze and interpret data in the field of biology and medicine. It is a branch of statistics that deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data related to health and life sciences.   Biostatistics plays a crucial role in medical research, epidemiology, public health, genetics, and many other fields related to health and life sciences. Biostatisticians are responsible for designing studies, collecting and analyzing data, and interpreting the results to draw conclusions and make informed decisions. They also help in designing experiments and clinical trials to test new drugs, treatments, and medical devices. Biostatistics is a multidisciplinary field that requires a strong foundation in statistics, mathematics, and biology, among other subjects.   Bioinformatics is the field of science that uses computational and statistical techniques to analyze biological data. It involves the applicat
Read more

Golden rice

-
Image
  Golden rice is a genetically modified variety of rice that has been engineered to produce beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. This modification gives the rice a yellow or golden color, hence the name "golden rice." Golden rice aims to address vitamin A deficiency, a significant public health problem in many developing countries, particularly in Southeast Asia and Africa.   Vitamin A is essential for human health, particularly for the proper immune system functioning and vision. However, many people in developing countries, particularly those who rely on rice as a staple food, do not have access to sufficient sources of vitamin A in their diet. This can lead to a range of health problems, including blindness, weakened immune systems, and even death.   Golden rice was developed in the late 1990s by a team of researchers led by Dr. Ingo Potrykus of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and Dr. Peter Beyer of the University of Freiburg in Germany. They used
Read more

STD 12th/Ch-Reproduction /Asexual reproduction & sexual reproduction

-
Image
Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes (sperm and egg) from two individuals. Instead, a single individual can produce offspring that are genetically identical to itself. Asexual reproduction is commonly observed in organisms such as bacteria, fungi, plants, and some animals.   There are several different methods of asexual reproduction, including: Cell division in a unicellular organism. Binary fission: This is a common method of asexual reproduction in bacteria and other single-celled organisms. The cell simply divides in two, producing two genetically identical daughter cells. Budding: This method is used by some animals such as hydra and yeast. A small bulge or bud grows on the parent organism and eventually separates to form a new individual. Binary fission,  Budding Fragmentation: This method is used by some plants and animals. The parent organism breaks into several pieces, and each piece can regenerate into a new indivi
Read more